Analysis of the effects footwear has on foot function have previously focused on how changes in material composition, design of heel counter, sole stiffness and thickness and motion control alter whilst wearing the shoe [1–4]. This body of research has focused on running and athletic shoes and results have highlighted that a stiffer heel counter reduces rearfoot motion and improves comfort [5, 6]. Sole stiffness and thickness alter stability and balance [7–9] and motion control has a varied impact on rearfoot kinematics [6, 10]. However, running and athletic shoes are infrequently chosen by females for everyday use [11]. Current research suggests that footwear related pain in the general population is dominated by females who associate up to 60% of foot pain to the shoes that have been worn with the elderly female population reporting a high association between ill fitting footwear and foot pain [12].

The concept of ill fitting footwear for females within published literature often leads to the assumption that joint pathologies and deformities are caused by wearing high heels. It is widely reported that the use of a heeled shoe for a prolonged time can have detrimental effects on foot health [13–15]. Studies investigating the effects of heel height have primarily focused on the influence of heel elevation on plantar pressure and triceps surae function rather than any other characteristics this shoe type imposes. Furthermore, these reported changes in increased forefoot pressure and altered triceps surae function do not directly identify the impact high heeled shoes have on toe deformities. Shoe toe box shape and volume may have a similar impact on foot health than the height of the heel. Reduced volume in the toe box causing cramping of the toes has been associated with foot deformities including the development of joint pathologies and forefoot lesions [12]. Hammer toe deformity where the interphalangeal joint is often prominent, may cause pain and callus due to irritation from shoe wear [16]. Increases in forefoot plantar pressure have been associated with the development of metatarsalgia, callus formation and increased risk of ulceration under the metatarsal heads [17–20]. Treatment of these lesions should provide symptomatic relief and alleviate the underlying mechanical cause yet continuation of ill fitting footwear will ensure these painful conditions persist [21].

Most soft tissue lesions can be managed conservatively by the use of shoes with a good fit and appropriate padding to redistribute pressure. Off loading pressure does in fact represent an indispensable precondition both for encouraging the tissue-repair mechanism, where active lesions are present, and for stopping the potential progression of pre-ulcerative conditions toward lesions. Previous studies indicate that for the site to be off loaded effectively, peak pressures needs to be below 99 N/cm²[22, 23]. However, Pressure–time Integral is thought to have a greater role in lesion pathogenesis as the length of time that pressure is applied can be significant in the formation of pathology [20, 24].

The forefoot has been highlighted as the most frequent area of pain in subjects who have foot pain related to footwear. Furthermore, subjects who had pain in the forefoot associated that pain with the footwear worn and had a significantly larger circumference of the foot than the subjects without any pain [12]. Other studies report similar findings around forefoot shape and fit, in particular the width fitting of shoes worn by two thirds of elderly females has been shown to be too narrow at the toe box [25, 26]. This altered fit and disparity between forefoot shape and shoe volume are thought to significantly contribute to the development of toe deformities and the persistence of symptoms that require clinical intervention [27]. Changes in footwear from narrow fitting shoes to a broader walker style have shown to reduce the incidence of foot pain [28]. Education on the ill-effects of tight fitting footwear is poor and research indicates that footwear in the younger population is influenced by fashion and colour [29, 30]. Footwear choice in young females is determined by the activity that is planned with high heels being chosen for socialising, boots for warmth and flat ballet pumps for school [11].

This study aimed to investigate differences in toe box volume and shape with a particular focus on peak pressure, time to peak pressure, total contact time and pressure time integral around the dorsal aspect of the forefoot and defined plantar foot regions in a healthy young female population with no known foot pathology.

The volume for each shoe tested varied between style and size (Figure 1). The round shoe shape had the least volume in the toe box across all sizes and the square toed shoe had the highest volume except in size 5.

The results of this study clearly indicate that the shape of a shoe’s toe box has a significant impact on dorsal and plantar pressures of the foot. Round toe shoes were shown to produce less peak pressure around the medial aspect of the foot, and the pressure time integral is also lower in this region. Conversely, the pointed style of shoe distributed the least amount of pressure in the lateral toe area. These observations can be related directly to the dimension and shaping of each the round and pointed shoe styles which correlate to the natural anatomical contours of the foot. However, the volume of the shoe was not correlated to forefoot pressure, with the round shoe having the least volume in the toe box across all shoe sizes tested and this condition demonstrated the lowest pressure values. This lack of correlation might be due to the stylised point of the shoe. This pointed shoe has an extended length to the normal foot contour, which increases the measured volume but does not alter the toe pressure due to lack of direct contact. The shape of the toe box therefore should be considered as a cause of increased forefoot pressure and not just the width of the shoe as previously mentioned as a problematic design of ill-fitting footwear [12, 25, 26].

The dorsal digital area showed higher peak pressure on the medial side of the foot whilst wearing a square and pointed shoe shape, with the design of the shoes encroaching on the natural shape of the first digit. Similarly this correlation of shoe shape and foot shape was also seen in the square toed shoe which exerted the highest amount of peak pressure over the fifth digit. The gradient of the lateral border of the toe box was similar both in the square shaped and the pointed shoe. There was greater variability regarding regional significance of peak plantar pressure in the masked areas of the plantar pressure with each shoe condition showing significance at different regions of the foot. The sole material of each shoe was not controlled within the study design and will have altered plantar pressure distribution and results. Although care was taken to choose three designs that only differed by toe box shape it was difficult to replicate the same sole characteristics. However, the round shoe shape did consistently result in higher peak plantar pressure within the forefoot region accompanied by lower dorsal peak pressures around the medial forefoot. This could be due to a lower recorded volume of the toe box and possible cramping of the normal toe profile altering toe function and plantar pressure during toe off.

It is also worth highlighting that the pointed shoe condition produced a significantly higher peak plantar pressure at the medial heel region than then other shoes. The pointed shoe that was tested had a more flexible heel counter compared to the other two shoe conditions, this feature had not be controlled for, which could possibly explain the increased medial heel pressure due to lack of structure.

The time to reach peak plantar pressure differed only at the masked toe region with all shoe conditions reducing the time to peak pressure compared to the barefoot condition. The contact time for this region was also lower for all shoe conditions excluding the shoes with a square toe which resembled the barefoot condition. This could be due to the stiffness of the sole of the shoe rather than the shape of the toe box which resulted in the toe area having reduced contact. The dorsal aspect of the foot around the fifth metatarsal and the first digit were most different when wearing the pointed shoe with increased time to peak pressure and contact in these regions. This shoe shape intensifies pressure over the border of the forefoot due to its angular shape.

There were significant differences between footwear conditions when analysing the pressure time integral data, which has been identified as significant when considering chronic tissue strain in the formation of callus and other hyperkeratotic skin lesions [20, 24]. The lateral border of the foot around the fifth metatarsal and digit exhibited the greatest differences when wearing the pointed shoe with a lower pressure time integral. The square shoe condition had the highest pressure time integral around this area. The fit of the foot in this style of shoe due to its dimension and the lack of control for heel to ball of foot measure could have induced this higher result with the alignment of the toes differing between participants.

Clinical presentation of hyperkeratotic skin lesions around the 5th digit could therefore be due to the shape of the shoe toe box rather than the perception of whether the shoe is a good fit or not. For example, a well supported lace up shoe with a pointed or square toe box may cause lateral irritation to the foot even though it is deemed a good fit elsewhere.

The results of this study did not exceed the reported peak pressure values of over 99Ncm², which have been acknowledged to be the threshold for tissue damage [22, 23]. The recorded forefoot pressures studied were purposefully from a sample with no known pathological foot problems to gather pre-pathology data. The inclusion of toe deformities and forefoot pain may present with differing results. There is, however, a lack of information to define what quantity of pressure is required to develop chronic responses to mechanical strain with the common formation of hyperkeratotic callus, and further studies into this area are recommended.

The fifth toe and interdigital fourth and fifth area are common locations to develop focal chronic callus lesions. The results from this study suggest that the shape of the toe box may play a part in the development of such lesions with the lateral border of the forefoot resulting in higher peak pressure and pressure time integrals in the square shoe. An increase in pressure may be attributed to the graduation of the toe box shape if does not follow the anatomy of the foot. Changes to footwear style may help to reduce the incidence of these common problems and improve comfort for many females. Cases have been reported where the fifth digit has been amputated to accommodate the foot in a desired shoe [35]. Further research into the impact of footwear styling at the toe box on pathological feet is recommended.

Considering the results from this study, development of shoe design needs to advance to encompass an accepted toe box for fashion as well as foot health. This may involve the medial border of the shoe around the 1st metarsalphalangeal joint and the first toe being designed in a round shape and the lateral border around the 5th interphalangeal joint having a pointed graduated shape. These style features could minimise peak pressure, contact times and consequently pressure time integral in the forefoot. This style and shape of shoe is infrequently seen in the market place with the majority of footwear styles adopting a narrowed toe box with equal shaping to the medial and lateral side of the shoe. By limiting consumer choices on footwear shape people are forced to choose footwear that has been shown to alter pressure to the forefoot. Providing footwear choices that do not impact on forefoot pressure could prevent pathologies that are associated with ill fitting shoes.

There are limited studies to investigate the impact that footwear shape and style have on foot pathologies however, there are strong links between foot pain and ill fitting footwear especially in the elderly population [36]. Footwear choices are led by fashion and image rather than health [11, 29, 30]. Changes in footwear design for younger adults, to accommodate natural foot position and shape, may be a useful way to help prevent painful foot pathologies and deformities occurring prior to old age.

The style of footwear investigated in this study was determined by fashion and the most popular choice amongst young females [11]. Although, the fit of the foot in the shoe around the toe box may alter with increased heel height, fastening of the shoe, shoe upper material and also last shape, the conclusions outlined in this manuscript do not address these factors. Further structured investigation into quantifying the pressure under the upper is required. Furthermore, there should be a detailed examination of all shoe styles with varied toe box shapes. The pointed shoe employed within this investigation was longer in the toe box region than the square and round shoe and therefore had an increased volume. The styled extension of this toe box may have masked the actual fit of the foot inside the shoe. This might require further scientific study of the relationship between design and function. In addition to this, studying a population with foot pathology will help in understanding the contribution footwear style makes to development of foot disorders.

The shape of the toe box can alter the pressure applied to the forefoot around the digits and plantar aspect of the foot in healthy young women with no known foot pathology. Hence, footwear advice with reference to the shape of the toe box is essential in the management of pressure related lesions and when preventative measures are being considered.