The purpose of this study was to determine changes in multi-segment foot biomechanics during shod walking with and without an orthotic device. To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the effect of orthoses on midfoot kinematics to better understand their clinical efficacy.
In support of the hypotheses, the results of the present study indicate that semi-custom orthoses reduce plantar fascia strain compared to walking without an orthoses. While we are not aware of another gait study that has calculated strain within the plantar fascia, the results are consistent with previous hypotheses of how orthoses may function to treat plantar fasciitis and minimize arch deformation [16, 17, 23]. Moreover, the majority of participants exhibited a larger than 14% reduction in strain, the between-condition measurement error. Finally, the effect size was large for the comparisons suggesting that the measure of strain has biological significance.
The results of the present study are supported by Kogler et al. [24] who conducted a cadaveric study and surgically implanted a strain transducer in the plantar aponeurosis. Measurements of plantar fascia strain during five orthoses conditions were recorded whilst axial loads were applied to the tibia to simulate weight bearing. These authors reported that only three of the five orthoses significantly reduce strain in the plantar fascia suggesting that certain types of orthoses are more effective than others in supporting the longitudinal arch. Specifically, the pre-fabricated orthoses and one of the custom orthoses did not reduce strain whereas the three custom-made orthoses significantly reduced strain across axial loading conditions. While the orthosis used in the current study was considered a semi-custom device, it too reduced PFS. How this type of device compares to custom-made orthoses is unknown but future research is necessary.
It is interesting to note that as early as 2003, Williams et al. [15] stated that orthotic devices may provide more control of the midfoot than the rearfoot but no study has since undergone this type of investigation. These authors [15] also went on to state it is likely that evaluation of the midfoot may provide more complete information regarding the exact control and efficacy of orthotic devices. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report on changes in plantar fascia strain when walking in an orthotic device. Indeed, the use of an orthotic device has been recommended as the primary method for the treatment of plantar fasciitis [23–26]. Therefore, the results of the current study suggest that the treatment of foot and ankle injuries such as plantar fasciitis may be due, in part, to reductions in plantar fascia tissue strain. Future research involving custom-made orthotic devices are necessary especially in light of the non-significant findings of other kinematic variables of interest.
No differences in MLA angle were found between conditions. While previous studies have reported that MLA angle differs between individuals with mid-stage posterior tibial tendon dysfunction (PTTD) and controls [21] other studies involving early-stage PTTD [27] have shown no differences. Moreover, Tome et al. [21] measured the difference between standing MLA angle, normalized to subtalar neutral position, as compared to the peak MLA angle. Since we did not obtain MLA angle values in a subtalar neutral position, we are not able to directly compare our results to those of Tome et al. [21]. In addition, the present study was limited in that the vertical height of the medial calcaneal marker from the plantar surface was not standardized. However, the within-subject comparisons of the present study would make this a moot point. Regardless, future studies that carefully standardize the marker placement are required to confirm or rebuke whether MLA angle is a measure best suited to healthy participants or whether it is for more pathological patients such as mid- or late-stage PTTD.
Contrary to the hypotheses, there were no differences in average peak rearfoot eversion or tibial internal rotation angles across the three conditions. Since there is no external medial posting material on the heel counter of the semi-custom orthotic device used in the current study, the similar peak rearfoot eversion and tibial internal rotation values between conditions are not completely unexpected. While the effect of orthoses on rearfoot kinematics has been well documented [1–6], and since foot orthoses are typically designed to control rearfoot eversion, we hypothesized they would reduce the relative amount of eversion to tibial internal rotation motion [28, 29].
A number of studies [30–32] have assessed the effect of foot orthoses on tibial (shank) motion reporting decreases of 2-4 degrees in peak tibial internal rotation and internal tibial rotation excursion. Nawoczenski et al. [31] studied the effects of semi-rigid posted orthoses on three-dimensional lower leg kinematics and found no significant change in foot eversion. However, mean internal tibial rotation was reduced by 2 degrees compared to not using orthoses. Eng and Pierrynowski [32] reported that rearfoot eversion was decreased by 1-3 degrees and internal tibial rotation was reduced by 0.5-2 degrees when using foot orthoses. Unfortunately, these studies utilized a custom-made orthotic device so comparisons to the current study are difficult.
To our knowledge, only two studies have investigated biomechanical differences between custom and semi-custom orthoses [33, 34]. Overall, both studies reported that there were little to no differences in rearfoot kinematics between the two different devices while running or walking. Pfeffer et al. [23] conducted a prospective, randomized, single-blinded clinical trial and reported that when used in conjunction with a stretching programme, an over-the-counter prefabricated foot orthoses is more likely to reduce symptoms associated with plantar fasciitis compared to custom-made orthoses. Moreover, Landorf et al. [35] investigated the effectiveness of different foot orthoses in the treatment of plantar fasciitis. These authors reported that after three months of treatment, reductions in pain and improvements in function were measured only for the over-the-counter prefabricated and customized orthoses as compared to sham orthoses. Thus, an over-the-counter orthotic device appears to function in a manner comparable to a custom-made device. However, the current study did not compare the over-the-counter semi-custom device to a custom-made orthotic and future research is necessary.
We chose to investigate a semi-custom orthotic device that incorporates a heat-moulding process, to further understand if the moulding process would significantly alter rearfoot or midfoot kinematics and plantar fascia strain as compared to a no-orthotic condition. We hypothesized the semi-custom device, whether moulded or non-moulded, would reduce peak rearfoot eversion, peak tibial internal rotation, and medial longitudinal arch angle, compared to the no-orthoses condition. However, no differences were found between orthoses conditions.
We hypothesized that the non-moulded orthotic condition would serve to minimize arch deformation, and thus reduce plantar fascia strain and medial longitudinal arch angle, more so as compared to the moulded condition as a direct result of the heat-moulding process and material deformation. Again no differences were found between orthoses conditions suggesting that heat moulding does not change rearfoot or midfoot kinematics. However, inspection of Figure 5 shows that for 13 of the 20 participants, a greater reduction in plantar fascia strain occurred when walking in the moulded condition as compared to the non-moulded and the average reduction in strain between conditions was 24.62% (± 14.16). Irrespective of the fact that the moulded condition resulted in overall greater reductions in PFS compared to the non-moulded condition, perhaps the large variability accounted for the lack of significant differences between conditions. Moreover, perhaps the heat-moulding process and material deformation according to the shape of the individual's arch is ideal to reduce tissue strain and optimize the orthotic device, which is contrary to the original hypothesis. Future research involving a larger sample size and involving individuals with differing foot structural characteristics is necessary to answer these questions.
Several limitations are acknowledged. First, the present investigation was limited by the fact that the AHI was the only structural measurement of the foot. For instance, the range of motion of the rearfoot might influence the degree to which an individual's rearfoot eversion can change when walking in an orthotic device. One could also question whether a change in arch height would be expected during walking gait from individuals with a typical AHI value. Ideally, future research involving excessively mobile feet, based on AHI criteria, in comparison to the healthy participants involved in the present study are necessary to better understand the role of orthoses in reducing PFS and MLA angle. Second, the current results are only applicable to walking and cannot be extrapolated to running. Since many chronic injuries, such as plantar fasciitis, occur in response to atypical loading during running, future running-related research is necessary to understand how an orthoses might affect strain. Third, the examiner responsible for data collection and analysis of the data was not blinded to orthoses condition. However, we randomized the order of conditions, coded the trials (T1, T2, T3) the same for all participants, and only after data processing revealed the order of conditions. Fourth, the plantar fascia runs from the calcaneal tuberosity to the heads of the first through fifth metatarsal bones [36] and encounters tensile and torsional stress as components of normal physiological function [37]. We modelled the tissue and approximated its location from the medial aspect of the calcaneus to the head of the first metatarsal, which is a simplified representation. Future research involving finite element modelling [37] and/or incorporation of such equipment as real-time fluoroscopy, in parallel with motion capture, may be better suited to provide more accurate measures of tissue strain. For example, Wearing et al. [38] used digital fluoroscopy and concluded that compared to controls, arch shape and arch angle were similar but plantar fascia thickness was greater for participants experiencing chronic plantar fasciitis. Such research may help to understand the role of orthoses and help optimize treatment options for injured patients. Finally, since the change in position of the D1MT and MCAL markers were used to calculate the PFS, and since PFS was significant (indicating a change in marker position), one must assume that the only reason the MLA angle was not significantly different amongst the three conditions studied was lack of movement of the NAV marker. Using 2-D roentgen photogrammetry, Tranberg and Karlson [39] reported that in relation to the underlying bones, the navicular marker moved up to 1.97 mm in the superior-inferior direction. Thus, and as previously discussed, future research using such technology as real-time fluoroscopy, in parallel with motion capture, is necessary.