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Table 2 Independent sample t-test, ANCOVA (adjusted to truncated foot length) & Cohen’s d effect size

From: Gender differences of foot characteristics in older Japanese adults using a 3D foot scanner

Foot characteristics

Men (N = 151) Mean ± SD

Women (N = 140) Mean ± SD

t test P value

ANCOVA P value

Effect size (ES)

Guide of ES

Sitting truncated foot length (mm)

179.81 ± 7.46

165.25 ± 6.92

P < 0.001

--

2.03

Large

Sitting instep (mm)

66.18 ± 4.30

59.65 ± 3.87

P < 0.001

P < 0.001

1.60

Large

Sitting NH (mm)

48.23 ± 6.21

42.15 ± 5.14

P < 0.001

P < 0.001

1.07

Large

Sitting AHI

0.37 ± 0.03

0.36 ± 0.03

.021

--

0.27

Small

Sitting foot length (mm)

243.19 ± 9.07

224.69 ± 8.86

P < 0.001

--

2.07

Large

Sitting ball girth (mm)

244.28 ± 11.65

227.95 ± 10.66

P < 0.001

.002

1.47

Large

Sitting ball width (mm)

98.93 ± 5.08

92.55 ± 5.24

P < 0.001

.490

1.24

Large

Sitting heel width (mm)

64.51 ± 4.22

59.93 ± 3.22

P < 0.001

.291

1.22

Large

Sitting first toe angle (degree)

10.42 ± 4.64

13.64 ± 6.92

P < 0.001

P < 0.001

0.55

Moderate

Sitting little toe angle (degree)

13.80 ± 4.00

13.35 ± 4.87

.393

.782

0.10

Very small

Sitting first toe height (mm)

18.03 ± 2.31

16.45 ± 2.16

P < 0.001

.057

0.71

Moderate

Sitting little toe height (mm)

12.88 ± 2.25

11.94 ± 1.85

P < 0.001

.564

0.46

Small

Sitting instep girth (mm)

248.93 ± 11.54

227.70 ± 10.85

P < 0.001

P < 0.001

1.90

Large

Standing foot length (mm)

246.20 ± 9.05

227.57 ± 9.13

P < 0.001

--

2.06

Large

Standing truncated foot length (mm)

182.16 ± 7.81

168.45 ± 7.01

P < 0.001

--

1.85

Large

Standing instep (mm)

61.68 ± 4.51

55.02 ± 3.88

P < 0.001

P < 0.001

1.58

Large

Standing NH (mm)

41.77 ± 6.32

35.76 ± 5.32

P < 0.001

P < 0.001

1.03

Large

Standing ball girth (mm)

247.09 ± 11.23

230.55 ± 11.41

P < 0.001

P < 0.001

1.47

Large

Standing ball width (mm)

101.53 ± 4.85

95.39 ± 5.74

P < 0.001

.251

1.16

Large

Standing heel width (mm)

65.89 ± 4.05

60.64 ± 4.67

P < 0.001

.006

1.21

Large

Standing first toe angle (degree)

10.73 ± 4.95

14.90 ± 7.60

P < 0.001

P < 0.001

0.63

Moderate

Standing little toe angle (degree)

13.84 ± 4.11

13.62 ± 5.00

.687

.725

0.05

Very Small

Standing first toe height (mm)

17.39 ± 1.91

16.02 ± 2.29

P < 0.001

.465

0.65

Moderate

Standing little toe height (mm)

12.76 ± 2.05

11.74 ± 1.87

P < 0.001

.084

0.52

Moderate

Standing instep girth (mm)

249.20 ± 11.05

228.30 ± 10.94

P < 0.001

P < 0.001

1.91

Large

Standing AHI

0.34 ± 0.03

0.33 ± 0.03

P < 0.001

--

0.46

Small

Arch drop (instep difference) (mm)

4.51 ± 1.70

4.65 ± 1.62

.464

.008

0.09

Very small

ND (mm)

6.46 ± 2.53

6.39 ± 2.53

.814

.610

0.03

Very small

ARI

0.92 ± 0.03

0.91 ± 0.03

P < 0.001

--

0.43

Small