Table 3 Lower limb biomechanical analyses, gait characteristics and footwear conditions of included studies

Azevedo et al. [27]

Muscle activity (integrated EMG: normalised EMG amplitude as a percentage of root mean square amplitude): tibialis anterior, peroneus longus, lateral gastrocnemius, rectus femoris, biceps femoris and gluteus medius;

Kinematics (3D using Vicon^® System 370 Version 2.5): sagittal plane hip, knee and ankle joints;

Kinetics: anterior-posterior and vertical ground reaction force;

Temporospatial parameters (speed, stride length, stride time, stride frequency).

Running

Uv, Og

C (neutral running shoe)

Baur et al. [11]

Muscle activity (normalised EMG amplitude to mean amplitude of the entire gait cycle and timing of activity): tibialis anterior, peroneals, lateral head of gastrocnemius, medial head of gastrocnemius, soleus;

Kinetics: antero-posterior and vertical ground reaction force;

Plantar pressures (Novel Pedar^® Mobile system): deviation of the centre of pressure.

Running

Cv (12 km/hour), Tm

C (gymnastic shoe that simulates barefoot conditions) and C (standardised marketed reference running shoe

Donoghue et al. [33]

Kinematics (3D: functional data analysis using 3D Qualysis system with Peak Motus™ analysis system): frontal plane rearfoot and lower leg, sagittal plane ankle and knee joints.

Running

Cv (~2.8 m/s), Tm

U (own running shoes)

Donoghue et al. [34]

Kinematics (3D Qualysis system with Peak Motus™ analysis system): frontal plane rearfoot and lower leg, sagittal plane ankle and knee joints.

Running

Cv (~2.5-2.8 ± 0.2-0.4 m/s), Tm

Unable to determine (as type of footwear not specified) and B

Kaufman et al. [19]

Plantar pressures (Tekscan^® in-shoe system): dynamic arch index.

Running

Uv, Og

C (military footwear) and B

McCrory et al. [25]

Kinematics (2D Motion Analysis high-speed video camera): frontal plane rearfoot.

Kinetics: antero-posterior, medio-lateral and vertical ground reaction forces.

Running

Uv ('training pace'), T (kinematics), Og (kinetics)

U (own footwear)

Ryan et al. [35]

Kinematics (3D ViconPeak^® system with Bodybuilder 3.6^® software): frontal and sagittal plane rearfoot and transverse plane tibia.

Running

Uv, Og

B

Van Ginckel et al. [2]

Plantar pressures (RsScan Footscan^® pressure plate): multiple variables (temporal data, peak force, force-time integrals, contact time, medio-lateral force ratios and position and deviation of the centre of force).

Running

Uv, Og

B

Williams et al. [24]

Kinematics and moments (3D Qualisys motion system with Visual 3-D software): transverse plane tibia relative to foot (tibial motion) and tibia relative to femur (knee motion).

Running

Cv, Og (3.35 m/s ± 5%).

B